“Some of my best leading men have been dogs and horses” – Elizabeth Taylor (actress)
“No hour of life is wasted that is spent in the saddle” Winston Churchill
“There is nothing so good for the inside of a man as the outside of a horse” John Lubbock (1894)
“There are only two emotions that belong in the saddle: one is a sense of humor and the other is patience” John Lyons (horse trainer)
Horses as human interventions and treatment…
Horse lovers and supporters of equestrian and equine facilitated activities have long claimed that horses have the ability to heal. Theories that attempt to explain the human-animal bond often approach it from an evolutionary or social-cultural perspective (Trotter, 2012, p.4-5). Biophilia theory hypothesizes that humans are naturally drawn to animals and nature (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p. 3). Theories attribute this to the horse’s sensitivity, gentleness despite their size and strength, use of non-verbal communication, and that they are a social species that can bond with humans and mirror their emotions (Hallberg, 2018, p.16). As herd animals, horses evolved to form strong bonds and cooperate with other herd members, which makes them suitable for therapeutic interventions (Hallberg, 2018, p.17). The ability of the horse to mirror a human’s emotions and provide valuable feedback is cited as a key reason for their value because “their response to us reflects what our presence tells them” (Hallberg, 2018, p.17). This enables people to learn empathy, improve their relationship and communication skills, and teaches patience (Bush, 2023, p.21-23). Horseback riding and handling can reduce stress, facilitate relaxation, improve balance, coordination, motor skills and strength (Bush, 2023, p.22;42). Equine-assisted interventions have benefited a diverse range of people, regardless of ethnicity, socio-economic class, age, or gender, for a wide variety of reasons (Bush, 2023, p.23).
There is a growing body of scientific research that supports anecdotal evidence that horses can benefit humans across biopsychosocial domains. Research into the new field of human-animal interactions has also provided insight into their physical and psychological benefits (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p.17). Given the varied and inconsistent approaches to equine facilitate activities, it is difficult to isolate how much of positive change can be attributed to involvement with horses, although research has successful identified some of the ways and mechanisms in which horses help people. For example, “EAI help people learn about themselves, their influence on others around them, increased self and body awareness, improved self-esteem, reassure about own abilities … Horses can help teach safe vs unsafe touch and boundaries (Trotter, 2012, p. 54) Horses can create a non-judgmental space for “self-expression and self-exploration” (Bush, 2023, p.21); building skills and meeting goals in EAI is a form of positive reinforcement that can motivate behavioral change and produce skills transferable to other areas of life (Bush, 2023,p.23; Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p. 206). Learning to properly work with horses can teach “that the locus of control is within oneself and not external to oneself” (Trotter, 2012, p.85). This empowerment can help people recovering from trauma “process feelings and rebuild trust” (Bush, 2023, p. 22).
The treatment of humans’ mental health issues with animals has been increasing since the 17th century but has recently surged in popularity (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p.143). AAIs (animal-assisted interactions) are effective because they combine “a relational element along with a sensory element to help with learning regulation” (Trotter, 2012, p.60). AAI in general has been found to “strengthen factors associated with resilience” when used in the treatment and prevention of psychiatric disorders and/or mental distress (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p.221). Programs utilizing horses, particularly equine-facilitated psychotherapy, have been found to be “effective at decreasing anger, depression, dissociation, and aggression as well as increasing self-esteem, self-confidence, attention-span, and social interaction. Hence, evidence exists for incorporating equine interventions into programs designed to “help children build social emotional skills, thus leading toward overall improved social competence” (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.206).
HAI (human-animal interactions) are not meant to replace “traditional psychotherapy or psychiatric medication”, but rather supplement it (Gee, Townsend, and Findling, 2023, p.144). Animal-assisted interventions is a growing field seen as valuable complementary therapy and being subjected to more rigorous research (Gee, Townsend, & Findley, 2023, p.17). Horses can be a strong motivator for clients to continue to participate in their program, help create trust and rapport between the mental health practitioner and the client, and act “as a catalyst for communication, insight, and change” (Trotter, 2012, p. 67; Hallberg, 2018, p.17-18). They also demonstrate helpful coping strategies, such as living in the moment, mindfulness, “coping with triggers, letting go, and recovering” (Trotter, 2012, p.62-63). Equine interactions can improve engagement while simultaneously allowing physical and psychological benefits (Gee, Townsend, & Findley, 2023, p.58; Hallberg, 2018, p.17).
Social isolation is common among people with depression and mental illness; human-horse interactions and engagement with the human facilitator can help alleviate this and provide social support (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p.58; Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.28); rapport building is “one of those most frequently touted benefits of all AAIs” (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p.58). For years, non-human animals have been seen as able to provide unconditional love and affection where humans fall short (Gee, Townsend, Findling, 2023, p. XVI; 133).
Horses can help improve communication and social skills, as “spending time with horses will help you learn to read others, but not to over-interpret what you see” (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.22). Horses extremely sensitive and will communicate if touched or approached in a way they dislike…” a number of controlled studies have demonstrated the efficacy of animal assisted therapy with a wide range of issues including children at risk or victims of sexual harm” (Trotter, 2012, p.54). In the therapeutic setting, horses can improve client-practitioner relationships by making the practitioner seem more trustworthy and authentic, increasing the trust and engagement necessary for success (Hallberg, 2018, p.18). Client feedback shows that they find communication and mutual respect occurs easier around the horses, leading to collaboration and motivation (Hallberg, 2018, p.18). Horses’ calming effects may support the development of adaptive behaviors that enhance “executive functioning skills, such as problem solving, decision-making, and creative and critical thinking” (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p.229).
Child development can be greatly supported by EAI, and interacting with animals can reduce children’s stress (Gee, Townsend, & Findley, 2023, p.147). They can positively enhance “children’s adjustment in various socio-emotional, cognitive, and behavioral domains; positive behaviors; behavioral and mood disorders; self-esteem; feelings of social acceptance and peer popularity; interpersonal communication; anger; and social competence, specifically self-awareness, self-management, personal responsibility, decision-making, goal-directed behavior, and relationship skills” (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.206). EAI with at-risk youth “improved pro-social skills, improved confidence, developing and practicing stress reduction skills and strategies, showing more empathy towards others” (Trotter, 2012, p.54). There is evidence that supports theories that “attachment to an animal is associated with social competence and prosocial behavior in youth,” believed to occur because of horse’s ability to promote emotional regulation, which is often difficult for youth-at-risk (Gee, Townsend, & Findley, 2023, p.76). Horses can educate children and youth about “responsibility, leadership, and empathy” (Bush, 2023, p.33).
A study that compared equine assisted counselling to a prestigious classroom-based group counselling program without animals found consistent improvements occurring in the equine group over the span of 12 weeks in self-image, self-efficacy, trust, and sense of wellbeing (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p.259). When comparing EAI to traditional “classroom-based counselling activities”, the EAI was more effective at reducing behavioral issues; another study examining the impact of EFP on Israeli students found that the school with a stable experienced higher levels of “self-control, self-image, trust, and general life satisfaction” (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.206). Another comparison between equine-facilitated psychotherapy and classroom-based counselling found that students who participated in the equine-assisted counselling program benefitted in 17 behavior areas, including “child self-reports of emotional symptoms, clinical maladjustment, atypical behaviors, sense of inadequacy, relationships with parents and parent reports of the child’s behavioral symptoms, internalizing problems, externalizing problems, adaptive skills, hyperactivity, aggression, conduct problems, anxiety, depression, somatizations, adaptability, and social skills” (Gee, Townsend, & Findley, 2023, p.258). In contrast, children in classroom-based counselling only improved in 5 domains (Gee, Townsend, & Findley, 2023, p.258). The EFP program used in the study focused on trust-building, social and relational skill development, and emotional recognition and regulation skills (Gee, Townsend, & Findley, 2023, p.258).
Horses can help restore people’s ability to trust, connect, and form healthy relationships and attachments (Trotter, 2012, p.57; Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.28). Participation in an EAI program can disrupt and reduce maladaptive behavior and facilitate the skills necessary to develop relationships with others by providing an environment where clients can repeatedly practice self-regulation and coping skills (Trotter, 2012, p.61). People with attachment or relationship issues, such as Reactive Attachment Disorder, benefit from horses ability to provide “relational attunement” which makes them useful for mediating attachment issues (Trotter, 2012, p.59). Experiencing acceptance from horse can “break down emotional barriers” (Bush, 2023, p.29). They may not be willing or able to trust the practitioner but will more readily connect with a horse (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.24). Animal interactions help people recover from relational trauma by providing a safe place to experiment with rebuilding trust and connections (Trotter, 2012, p.59). The horse helps the client become calm and regulate themselves, which allows them to learn and “internalize new information and so the brain can develop the portions of its functioning that did not develop because of trauma or neglect” (Trotter, 2012, p.60). These interactions assist with limbic system regulation (Trotter, 2012, p.60).
Limbic restructuring is possible in trauma recovery with EAI because both horses and humans have an extensive limbic system in the brain that controls emotion, and because horses are sensitive and respond to physiological arousal (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.73;81). These neural connections develop early in life, but trauma disrupts these connections and causes the limbic brain and autonomous nervous system to enter a permanent flight or fight survival mode of hypo-or-hyperarousal which reduces the development and function of the neocortex (the ‘reasoning’ part of the brain) (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.73). EAI can restructure these neural pathways and heal trauma through the three stages required for neurological rewiring: limbic resonance, limbic regulation, and limbic revision (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.73). This is possible because horses are a non-verbal social species with a heart ten times the size of a human’s, so they have a larger and stronger electromagnetic field; in order to successful interact with horses, the human needs to regulate their arousal level (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.74). The limbic system is revised as the client works through the exercise with the horse and creates new emotions and associations (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.74).
Attunement in the horse-human relationship supports the processes that remap one’s neuroception (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.9). This causes “greater flexibility and range of responses in the world…including shared experiences of settling, calm, pleasure, play, gratitude, confidence, and joy” (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.9-10). The social engagement and utilization of the ventral vagal system in EAI creates “organization, regulation, and coherence in the nervous system of clients” (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.10). Time spent with horses produces a safe and secure base where clients can begin to repair relational trauma and mistrust, and “work through activation associated with proximity and separation, the natural arrivals and departures in relationships” (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.10).
Learning to ride and train horses creates a sense of achievement that can improve self-esteem, and the horse-human bond developed throughout the experience can enhance functioning in people who struggle with emotional management (Trotter, 2012, p.205). Riding stimulates the vestibular systems, both hemispheres of the rider’s cerebrum, and provides sensory input (Hallberg, 2018, p.15). Therapeutic activities with horses are used to activate parts of the brain involved in emotional processing (Bush, 2023, p.25). Heartrate variability improved in positive interactions with horses, a sign of reduced stress and arousal (Bush, 2023, p.25).
EAI can reduce depression, as animal interactions have been found to impact “symptoms of anhedonia and low motivation” (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p.133). Sufficient research has been done to prove it a viable treatment for those living with PTSD, depression, anxiety, or autism (Bush, 2023, p.19). Using EAI along with cognitive-behavioral therapies can “challenge negative thought patterns and beliefs” and use the horse to help reframe the client’s perceptions (Bush, 2023, p.25-26). Many depressive symptoms also arise from or relate to trauma and its symptoms, and EAI can assist in both cases (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.28-29). Research suggests that “by helping individuals build a connected relationship with an equine while reforming and creating new neuropathways that help individuals build healthy, attuned, connected, and lasting relationships with themselves and others” (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.29). In her book, ‘Equine Assisted Mental Health for the Healing of Trauma’, Kay Sedekum Trotter, an expert in therapeutic human-equine interactions, explains:
“relational trauma can cause individuals to cope through hypo-arousal and dissociation between the body and mind. Cognitive talk therapies that use a top-down brain approach fall short in the multidimensional impact of relational trauma. The LEAP model provides a person-centered, bottom up approach when working with horses and trauma survivors. It increases body based awareness and emotional regulation and encourages the process of reconnecting body and mind. Horses aid in the process because they are sensitive to physiological arousal and are safe and social animals. EFP practitioners offer a platform in which individuals can learn to use their bodies as a sensing tool, like the horses do, and understand how they relate to others. LEAP exercises…facilitate neurological rewiring via limbic resonance, regulation, and revision so that those who have experienced trauma can learn to engage safely and comfortably with other people as they have done with the horses” (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.81).
Anxiety and stress are common. The body naturally fluctuates between high and low levels of arousal; equine therapy and treatments can be used to increase client’s threshold for stress (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.8-9). Studies in animal-assisted-activities (AAA), including EAI, consistently find AAAs equal or greater to other therapeutic activities in decreasing anxiety (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p.144). Clients preferred interactions with animals to more conventional stress reduction classes, although both forms have shown similar effectiveness in reducing anxiety, depression, and heart rate (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p.144). A comparison between animal-assisted interactions (AAIs) and therapeutic recreation found “patients with psychotic disorders, mood disorders, and other disorders experienced reduced anxiety after the AAI; only patients with mood disorders experienced reduced anxiety after the therapeutic recreation” (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p.144). There are contrasting findings into the study of animals mediating stress and anxiety- some have found that although a friendly animals has an anti-arousal effect, they will not necessarily generate a “stress response-moderating effect” (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p.146).
Most research affirms that an animal’s presence is associated with reduced stress and anxiety, and reduced anxiety responses to stressors, at least in certain situations (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p.149). When stressed university students interacted with animals, they immediately “showed significant improvements in global executive functioning and metacognition, achieved particularly for at-risk students” (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p.228). Even if the dog was unknown to college students, they showed “decreased cortisol levels and reduced cardiovascular responses…throughout a series of tasks testing stress and anxiety (when dogs present)” (Gee, Townsend, and Findling, 2023, p.146-147). An interesting finding when comparing the results of human-animal interactions in stress management was that the animals were more successful in distracting the students from negative thoughts, whereas more traditional stress management education strategies potentially increased them (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p.229). PET scans of pet owners found “less activity in brain regions associated with sympathetic nervous system arousal when their dogs were present during the scans then when they were not” (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p.146). Equine-assisted interactions also reduce the stress hormone cortisol (Bush, 2023, p. 24).
Equine interactions create positive change through their alteration of the human participant’s neurobiology. Humans’ complex neocortex is often under cultural influences to judge, condemn, and repress instinctual behaviors that occur in response to perceived survival situations, leading to pathology (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.6). In trauma recovery, equine interactions can generate conditions that enable the restoration of “regulation, safety, and connection” by working through the nervous system’s survival responses and allowing them space for expression (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.8). Human-animal interactions reduce sympathetic arousal in the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis and increase levels of oxytocin (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.24). Oxytocin is a hormone that is produced through bonding and attachment, that influences and regulates “social behaviors, fear, stress, and pain, and fosters tranquility, well-being, memory, and learning. [It] also induces states of rest and digest as well as a state of calm that supports connection. In the presence of supportive humans and horses, cortisol levels do not rise much, and situations are less likely to be perceived as threatening-presumably due to an increase in oxytocin levels in the brain” (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.24). An oxytocin boost occurs when interacting with an animal, affecting how the person interacts with the animal and other people nearby (Hallberg, 2018, p.19). Once the human has bonded with the horse, this relationship can cause beneficial hormone changes to their levels of dopamine, endorphins, and oxytocin (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p.127).
Mirror neurons exist in social species, such as humans and horses. These neurons are specialized cells in the brain that enable the individual to both emulate and understand other’s actions and feelings (Bush, 2023, p.24). Equine interactions activate mirror neurons in both species, through noticing the others’ responses and imitating or responding to their behavior. This conscientious form of interactions create feelings of empathy and connection in the client for the horse (Bush, 2024, p.24).
People can benefit through interactions with horses whether mounted or un-mounted, although horseback riding is a popular activity and often the reason people keep horses. There are some health benefits specific to riding. How horses move is possibly one of the most likely reasons for producing positive change in humans (medical and physiological context) (Hallberg, 2018, p.14). Hippotherapy uses horseback riding to treat physiological and physical ailments. Riding a horse at a walk is the “basic component used to produce neurophysiological therapeutic effects” (Hallberg, 2018, p.15). The rhythmic motion of being seated on a walking horse mirrors walking themselves and can stimulate the benefits they would receive by walking on their own except it is easier for those with physical disabilities and “more efficient in providing motor and sensory inputs” (Hallberg, 2018, p.14) and cause relaxation (Bush, 2023, p.24).
Change occurs as the client adapts themselves to various physical forces; “horses’ swinging movements produce 3-dimensional dynamic and rhythmic impulses that are transmitted to the rider. These impulses are exposing the rider to forward and backward movements, shifts sideways, and rotations” (Hallberg, 2018, p.15). Varying horse direction, speed, and movement is hypothesized to stimulate greater signaling from proprioceptive and vestibular receptors as the human continually adapts their posture (Hallberg, 2018, p.15). These changes also produced “pelvic displacement and rotation” which increased the value of horseback riding for physiotherapy and kinesiotherapy, and also improved clients’ emotional abilities, interest, curiosity, acceptance of physical contact, and sharing of emotion (Hallberg, 2018, p.16). The process of balancing and moving with the horse while riding enhances blood flow through the body and brain, improving the cingulate region’s functioning which helps regulate distress responses (Trotter, 2012, p.64). This can result in psychological and physiological benefits as clients, such as those who have been traumatized, that have disconnected from their feelings are able to begin to reconnect with their body will on the horse (Trotter, 2012, p.64). The practitioner can help the client reconnect with bodily sensations while utilizing emotional regulation tactics, so they retain a sense of control (Trotter, 2012, p.64). D.V.M. Robert Miller states that “when riding, the human’s pelvis moves back and forth similar to the way it does when crawling or walking. Riding helps develop the muscles needed for walking. Riding provides physical therapy and motivation that is unmatched in preparing a disabled child to someday walk” (2024, p.317).
Horseback riding can also help improve cardiovascular fitness and assist in weight management (Hallberg, 2018, p.14). For people with a physical disability, riding horses can provide them with the freedom and mobility they would not have otherwise (Bush, 2023, p.30). Animal assisted interventions in general reduce blood pressure and increase endorphins; horse riding shares these benefits (Trotter, 2012, p.205).
Mechanisms behind the change facilitated by horses…
Equine-assisted interactions used in the mental health profession is still a relatively new field that lacks consistent definitions and practice. Often people who tout its benefits are practitioners themselves, and the information they provide is biased, anecdotal, or lacks scientific research to back it, doing a disservice to the field by allowing the spread of misinformation. More research is needed to fully understand how horses enable the positive changes that are possible through EAI. Fortunately, some of the mechanisms through which EAI creates the transformation seen in program participants has been identified and validated. It utilizes the connection between humans and animals to enable “communication, insight, and change” (Trotter, 2012, p.41). The
Biopsychosocial Model is helpful for explaining the holistic benefits provided by EAI and is a longstanding model that has provided a framework for understanding biological, psychological, and social influences on human health and well-being for over four decades (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p.4). For example, interactions with animal can lead to stress being reduced by “decreased heart rate, blood pressure and cortisol levels and increased oxytocin levels”; psychological stress reduction as evaluated on self-rated mood scales, with almost immediate impact on mood, stress, and anxiety… On the social dimension, stress was reduced “immediately and over time in the form of improvements in social support networks, social development, and overall social health” (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p. 4).
Interactions with horses share some benefits seen in human-animal interactions in general, such as serving as a “social catalyst” to build rapport with the practitioner and create a “therapeutic alliance” (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.23). Trotter describes “equine assisted counselling [as being] based on experiential work that uses equines to increase client’s awareness of their thoughts, words, and actions” (Trotter, 2012, p.9). Horses also facilitate learning, as interacting with animals can be a strong motivator for learning and retaining new knowledge because “1) learning is retained more when individuals are emotionally invested and 2) learning is maximized when it occurs within significant relationships” (Trotter, 2012, p.6). The use of horses in teaching new skills and behaviors also aligns with early learning theories that placing someone into a novel environment will provide more opportunity and engagement for learning (Trotter, 2012, p.205). Animals can also enhance positive benefits achieved through therapy (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p.4). Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is commonly used, and the horse’s presence can improve client’s response to it by “increasing engagement…facilitating rapport between patient and therapist, reducing anxiety that may interfere with the learning process, and improving executive functioning (motivation, attention, self-regulation) (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p.127).
Human-animal interactions change human physiology by eliciting the release of oxytocin, which causes improved “social behaviors and cognition” (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p.3). The increase in oxytocin and cooccurring decrease in cortisol through HAI causes the human to “experience calmness, decreased depression, decreased heart rate and blood pressure, and increased trust and social skills” (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p.58). The Threshold of Intensity model uses equine cofacilitators to enable ‘co-regulation’ in the human client, as the presence of a calm horse can, at a subconscious level, allow them to ‘check in’ to accurately gauge if the environment is safe or risky, and either act or relax (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.9). The human practitioner guides the client in “observing herd dynamics [which] provides an opportunity to normalize the different roles of the parts within a client’s inner system…can help alleviate shame associated with fragmentation, painful emotions, needs, and self-protective actions or reactions, by acknowledging how those were adaptive and necessary for the survival of one’s inner herd” (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.24).
Both social and stress response systems are similar between humans and other mammals; these systems are interconnected and utilized in AAT (animal assisted therapies) (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p.260). To understand their interconnectedness, we can look at the ‘thrive’ and ‘survive’ systems:
“The thrive system, which involves reward and gratification, is the social response system. Mammals are wired to attend to themselves and others through social interaction. They commonly seek out social interaction for comfort and nurturance and a way of reducing stress in themselves or another. The survive system (fight-flight-freeze response) …is the stress response system…. stress related hormones such as aldosterone, cortisol, and adrenaline are then released into the body, resulting in fight, flight, or freeze responses” (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, p.260).
Negative social interactions can upset and stress animals as they would in a human- animals reflecting this serve as ‘mirror’ to the human and/ or will alert to distress by sensing and responding to emotion in human (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, p. 260). Animals in therapy generally serve “in two primary roles during AAT: nurturer and emotional stress detector” (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p. 262). Horses are excellent for this work as “mammals are neurologically wired to detect and respond to stress by 1) signaling an alert when in need or alarm to the presence of a threat 2) moving toward another to receive comfort 3) moving toward a stressed other so as to provide comfort or to nurture, and 4) moving away from a stressor for self-care or self-preservation…the sophisticated olfactory system of dogs and horses allows them to detect emotions from human body excretions and then respond in ways that may reflect the internal emotional state of a client” (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, p. 263).
EAI is a form of experiential therapy and provides “an interactive model for the participant to learn through doing rather than through lecture and education” (Trotter, 2012, p.90). Horses are used because they “are highly perceptive animals and very emotionally connected to other horses and even humans…this is why horses are so good for personal development because they tend to reflect the emotional state of the human. It’s like instant biofeedback” (Trotter, 2012, p24). Processing feedback from the horses “offers clients insights, which assist them in more productive and healthier expressions of emotion” (Trotter, 2012, p.41). EAIs require the client to pro-actively engage and physically move during the process; this is valuable as “clients seem to listen better and are able to incorporate more of the feedback with less resistance if they can have a hands-on experience and be in motion in their body during sessions” (Trotter, 2012, p.44). Research supports experiential therapies, such as EAT/EAIs that use both hemispheres of the brain and experiences to create new neural pathways (Trotter, 2012, p.100).
Time with horses allows people to reconnect with and receive benefits from nature and exercise simultaneously. As these interactions occur outside in a natural environment with more stimuli than in an office, clients can experience increased positivity, relaxation, and reduced stress levels as these have been proven to occur when exposed to “nature stimuli” (Hallberg, 2019, p. 19; Trotter, 2012, p.13). Even if only viewing nature scenes, people in studies have been found to more quickly recover from stress and become calmer and happier (Hallberg, 2019, p.22). Attention restoration theory believes that nature can improve the brain’s ability to focus, as time in nature gives the brain time to rest and recover (Hallberg, 2019, p.21). People are becoming separate from nature, despite our connection to it being “timeless, universal, and innate” (Hallberg, 2019, p.21) and necessary for health (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p. XVI). Research consistently finds that nature heals and has a positive impact on “attention and concentration, stress, anger, frustration, depression, anxiety, and physical health” (Hallberg, 2019, p.21; Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p.127). ‘Ecotherapy’ refers to treatments that are based around activities that reconnect clients with nature (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p.127). AAIs frequently included under ecotherapy or in an ecosystems approach to modifying the environment an individual is in and “can provide valuable motivation, behavioral activation, and interpersonal support for depressed individuals struggling with social isolation” (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p.127).
Horses are a social species capable of forming bonds with individuals of other species if necessary (Miller & Lamb, 2014, p.117), which allows the human participant to develop a trusting relationship. Likewise, people need connection, even if with another species (Gee, Townsend & Findling, 2023, p. XV). Gee, Townsend, & Findling observe that “these attachments are not one-directional. Social and highly emotional animals like dogs and horses…form strong attachments to their humans that are often equally powerful, driven by shared mammalian physiology that shows, for example, and increase in oxytocin during relaxed gazes between dogs and their owners” (2023, XVI).
The social support received from the human-animal bond produces positive mental and physical health benefits, and compared to human relationships, the support from animals is generally unconditional, less complicated, and less stressful; “bonds with animals are inherently relaxed and intimate” (Trotter, 2012, p.5). Animal’s responsiveness helps build healthy relationships, plus animals are not demanding or judging which distracts from past hurts (Trotter, 2012, p 6). Humans have a need for love, connection, and caring that can be attained through a health human-animal relationship with mutual understanding and non-verbal communication (Trotter, 2012, p.5). This bond directly influences the human’s ability to trust and connect (Trotter, 2012, p. 6). Social experience impacts mental functioning, so the positive experiences of EAI are transferrable to other areas of life affected by the client’s mental state (Trotter, 2012, p.205). Interacting with animals also decreases “feelings of social isolation, increases community support and integration…increases social capital [and] facilitates human social approach, social contact, and conversations between strangers or casual acquaintances” (Trotter, 2012, p.100). These can be seen in programs that use EAI. Gee, Townsend, & Findling identify the changing relationship people have with their pets to support the benefits of EAI for social connection: “Many people consider pets to be part of their families, and pets are reported to fulfill the four roles of attachment figures: enjoyable, comforting, missed when absent, and sought out in times of distress. Their nonjudgmental nature makes them a particularly valuable resource for communication among those who are low in self-disclosure or high in self-consciousness, adolescents (particularly boys who report disclosing less than girls do) and young and older adults” (2023, p. 3). They also identify three key perspectives within Social Support Theory that explain the impact of social support on mental health: “1) reduces or buffers the effects of stress on health, 2) perception of support…has been linked to positive health outcomes, 3) being in a relationship or relationships and experiencing companionship and intimacy are associated with positive health outcomes” (2023, p. 4).
Equine therapy and EAIs can help with reactive attachment disorder (RAD), an attachment disorder that arises from early relational trauma or the lack of a consistent and safe caregiver. Using equine therapy “attempts to re-engage the limbic system in a rhythmic manner (safe and predictable)- essentially to develop the ability to be in a connected relationship thanks to the reorganization of the lower regions of the brain, and specifically the limbic system…Without an ability to have felt internal sense of connection, the physical and emotional connections when close with others will lack security” (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p. 56). The goal of equine therapy is to increase feelings of safety and connection with others, develop the ability to form healthy attachment and detachment- both are needed to build sense of connection (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.56). This approach with EAI to treat RAD is based on attachment theory and the belief that the ability to form secure attachments arises from an integrated and organized brain (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.56). Attachment theory states “that human infants develop strong emotional connection with a primary attachment figure and display certain behaviors indicative of attachment” (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p. 3). In RAD, this process was disrupted, but the client can have the opportunity to create a secure attachment to a horse. Clients already have formed neural connections with negative associations regarding people, but rarely have had this negative association with horses, so they provide a “blank slate on which to learn new ways of relating- and the client often experiences more willingness to learn in this relationship than in one with a human, where negative interaction is usually expected” (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.56). With horse, client can experiment with attachment, detachment, closeness, and connection (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p. 56-57). EAI used to “repair the wounds of past relationships by creating new experiences for the brain to learn and the body to heal” (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p. 57). EAI for this focus on healing multiple aspects of the client, including co-regulation and self-regulation skills (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p. 57). When “client’s brain has begun to reorganize neural pathways related to relationship-making it much more likely the client will be able to transfer and sustain the changes made in session with his horse” (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.58). Gee, Townsend, & Findling touch on this in their statement that: “Ethnographic work suggests possible mechanisms for emotional and behavioral improvements following EFP, including building a relationship with the horse, being free to feel ‘vulnerable’ emotions like love and empathy, and transferring social skills used in EFP to other areas of life” (2023, p. 73).
Horses in counselling are often used as metaphors, or for the client to project their beliefs and feelings onto. Clients can project these “onto the horses for exploration and resolution” (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.25). The horses also provide the clients with direct feedback on the non-verbal cues they emit, which can raise client’s awareness of how they impact the world around them (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.25). When interacting with horses, participants are able to “explore their feelings, behaviors, and relational patterns” as horses are highly empathetic and able to sense and respond to human emotion by the human’s body language and scent pheromones released during emotional reactions (Bush, 2023, p.16,31). Horses are excellent at teaching relational skills as they are “more effective at confronting behaviors and attitudes then people are, partly because of their honesty but also because of their ability to observe and response to non-verbal communication” (Trotter, 2012, p.9). This allows the client to project their fears, worries, and emotions onto the horse, and then witness how their actions and emotions impact others around them (Trotter, 2012, p.9). The program facilitator can then raise their “awareness that what seems to be out of their control is really in their control and thus repeatable” (Trotter, 2012, p.90). Clients emotionally process their experiences with the horse and use it to build “self-control and self-agency” (Trotter, 2012, p.91). Learning to communicate with and interact with a horse requires the client to practice “internalizing and reinforcing inner resources…and increasing the capacity to tolerate positive affect are an important part of parts work and trauma work in general” (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.25). Often the horse comes to represent an “archetype for the client such as a resource quality, trait, emotion, sensation, or action that they want to access within themselves. Similarly positive experience in the context of equine-focused activities involving the client’s own skills and capacity also serve as a potent memory resource to be able to recall and sense after the fact…also can [provide] a counter-response to persecutor parts that torment and continue to reenact past abuse toward the self” (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.25).
Horses are increasingly being used in trauma recovery programs, particularly for those who have experienced severe trauma and require intensive treatment. Horses have been incredibly effective in recovering from trauma because they are highly social animals that evolved to exist in a cooperative group, similar to humans. Many traumatic events occurred in the relational context, so treatment of PTSD in these cases needs to focus on addressing trauma in the relational context (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.23). It is often difficult for someone traumatized to trust another human, which is where the horse is used to recreate trust and begin to rebuild relationships; “the fundamental biological structures and functions that serve to regulate social relationships in equines are identical to those in humans, and indeed, in all mammals” (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.23).
Numerous studies have been conducted on EAIs in the treatment of veterans with PTSD, depression, and/or traumatic brain injuries (TBI). The programs studied ranged in session length, program duration, and treatment mode (e.g. mounted, un-mounted…) (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p.128). A review of these studies finds that “participants reported decreased depressive symptoms, increased perception of social support, and enhanced resilience following program participations. Hypothesized mechanisms for these effects were the unique experience of the horse-human bond, socialization with other people during the program, use of the horse as a ‘mirror’ of one’s own experiences and behavior, mindfulness, development of autonomy, and the horse’s natural calming effects on people” (Gee, Townsend, & Findling, 2023, p. 128).
Traditional therapies use a ‘top-down’ approach with verbal talk or room based therapies, beginning in the upper brain (neo-cortex) and working down towards the brain stem (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.70-71). EAI utilize bottom-up, beginning to work on regulating the brain stem with non-verbal communication and tactics (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.70-71). The top-down process of traditional therapy is a “cognitive process that relies on being able to verbalize and access parts of the brain that may have shut down during the trauma and are now either inaccessible or too painful to articulate” … for this reason, EAI offers therapy in a way that is non-verbal and better prepares the client (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p. 70-71). EAI “takes into consideration the need to offer therapy in a non-verbal way. It draws on practices such as body-based awareness and emotional regulation and encourages the process of reconnecting body and mind. Facilitators are trained to execute specific exercises of working with horses so clients can respond to new situations with a non-traumatic response, thus encouraging new limbic pathways to be formed. The bottom-up approach also encourages clients to engage with unconscious neurobiological memories that are stored in the body making equine therapy a powerful tool for intervention” (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p. 71).
Horses sense predators intent and respond but also relax once the threat is gone. In “trauma survivors, these sensing mechanisms that allow for rest get switched off so they can survive and endure constant threats of actual danger within their environment” … often initially with horses, client will be in state of high arousal with high levels of anxiety …horses can immediately sense client’s hyper-arousal and reflect this in their reactions (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.72). Under guidance of facilitator, horses can become still and “begin to mirror and reflect the true feelings of the client, without masking them. This dynamic makes horses exceptionally honest teachers for clients who are not aware of what they are radiating and possibly being incongruent. This process is largely important for clients who may have become dissociative, incongruent, and non-verbal. Through EFP the clients can learn to use their whole body when communicating, thus getting in touch with their true feelings and promoting an embodied experience of healing” (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p 72). Clients can also be re-traumatized or further stressed if having to speak about the experiences with a therapist, the non-verbal interactions with horses are less stressful/traumatic; “this nonverbal processing…crucial for healing to take place. EFP therefore teaches clients to use their bodies as a sensing tool and develops the use of mindfulness. Clients become grounded (moving their heads into their bodies), less stressed and anxious and have a better understanding of how they relate to others, and why others relate to them the way they do. In turn, this improves both intrapersonal and interpersonal relationships at home, school/work, and with close others, thereby promoting a healthy sense of self” (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.73).
In PTSD treatment, EAI can be used to increase somatic awareness. Calming activities with the horses can be mentally and physiologically soothing, helping clients reach the calm state necessary to heal and remain in their “window of tolerance” (Trotter, 2012, p.61). Being able to learn and master new skills is essential to recovery from PTSD and rebuilding confidence; EAIs provide the opportunity to do that as well as “develop an ability to remain connected to the animal during moments of uncomfortable arousal” (Trotter, 2012, p.61).
Horses are primarily non-verbal and communicate in a way that is facilitated by the limbic region of the brain; it is believed that all mammals are capable of communicating this way “due to the electromagnetic signals that are given out via the heart” (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.71). Neuroscience has found that humans have neural networks in their guts and heart as well as their head, and “when people talk about a ‘gut’ feeling they are suggesting that they can feel and communicate through energy fields” (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.71). Unfortunately, many people have lost touch with this intuition due to the emphasis placed on cognition in society (Trotter & Baggerly, 2019, p.71). Those who do listen to it are often labelled as having a ‘sixth sense’, though there is limited scientific evidence confirming how humans perceive electromagnetic energy fields (Fay, 2019, p.11).
Dr. Susan D. Fay researched the impact of electromagnetic fields in horse-human communications and incorporated this understanding into her practice. In her book, ‘Sacred Spaces’ (2019), she cites research by Dr. Allen M. Schoen, DVM, the HeartMath Institute and others in explaining the role of electromagnetic fields in communication and co-regulation. Research by Dr. Allen M. Schoen, DVM, into electromagnetic fields finds that “there is an interactive and constantly changing energy field that surrounds us;” this and interspecies interactions led to his Transspecies Field Theory in which he “proposes that an energy field is produced when we connect and interact with another being, whether it is human or animal…our behaviors create an energy field (i.e. energy waves) that affects others. And the energy field created by others affects us. This energy is generated…through the energy emitted by our body as it reacts physiologically to our thoughts, intentions, and behaviors” (Fay, 2019, p10). The earth and all living things emit electromagnetic energy. It is possible to measure this energy through electrocardiograms (EKGS), electroencephalograms (EEGS), and galvanic skin response (GSR) sensors; magnetometers or a compass will detect the earth’s electromagnetic field (Fay, 2019, p.10).
Science has found collections of neurons in the heart, brain, and gut, are all considered ‘brains’ “because they have their own nervous systems that process information received from our senses” …the brains in our heart and gut can also influence our emotions and actions (Fay, 2019, p.11). Most people only connect with heart and gut feelings at a subconscious level (Fay, 2019, p.11). All three intercept information from incoming energy fields: “When one of your senses detects something in the environment, the nervous system (one or more of the three) turns this information into an electrical impulse, a chemical (i.e. a hormone or neurotransmitter), a pressure wave, or an electromagnetic field. The brain in your head processes this information and decides what action it needs to take. If the action is a thought or emotion, electromagnetic energy is emitted from your body” (Fay, 2019, p12).
Each individual has their own energy field, which is what the horse senses in EAI (Fay, 2019, p.11). Other people can also sense your ‘energy signature’ “but unconsciously, it’s the first impression you make on them” (Fay, 2019, p.11). Your energy signature is dynamic, and changes based on your behavior, emotions, thoughts, and actions. Your heart emits electromagnetic waves in response to your emotions and your brain emits them in response to your thoughts (Fay, 2019, p.12). An example of subconsciously detecting an energy signature is when we say someone has ‘animal magnetism’. A person who has animal magnetism has the “ability to create a positive electromagnetic energy field around themselves. Their energy is so strong it effects everyone in their proximity. They draw people to them because their energy makes others feel good” (Fay, 2019, p.11). The brain in the gut is the most primitive and basic of the three and serves to alert the organism to danger; it receives information from electromagnetic fields, but its priority is keeping you safe and responding to threats (Fay, 2019, p 13).
The heart’s ‘brain’ is dictated by emotions; it receives info from the electromagnetic field but also converts your emotions into electromagnetic energy that it emits (Fay, 2019, p. 15). The HeartMath Institute has extensively studied this energy for over 20 years and has found the heart is the “first organ in the body to sense emotional information from the body or from someone or something in the energy field. This information is processed by the heart’s nervous system and then the information is sent on to the main brain for further analysis” (Fay, 2019, p.15). A magnetometer or EKG is used to measure heart energy (Fay, 2019, p.16). The HeartMath Institute found that a human’s heart energy can be detected as far as 10 ft away, and electromagnetic energy emitted by the heart is 60 x greater amplitude then that emitted by the brain (Fay, 2019, p. 16). A horse’s heart energy is five times greater than a human’s (Fay, 2019, p.16). This electromagnetic field is responsible for ‘co-regulation’ between beings; “because the heart’s energy field is so large, it easily picks up electromagnetic information from the energy field or sends it out into the energy field…because the heart’s energy field extends outside your body, anyone near you will be affected by this change in energy. The dominate wave in the energy field will cause other surrounding waves to synchronize with it.” (Fay, 2019, p.17).
The heart’s electromagnetic wave pattern is effected by thoughts and emotions; positive thoughts produce smooth and regular wave patterns, with high coherence… negative emotions produce irregular and incoherent patterns (Fay, 2019, p 16). Dr. Fay explains coherence in heart waves: “when your heart is in high coherence, your mind, emotions, and heart are in alignment. This is a state of health that increases your intuition and creativity and allows you to more easily access your inner guidance and your ability to connect with others” (2019, p.16.). A high heart coherence is connected to lower stress levels, lower blood pressure, calm and relaxed feelings, and triggers the brain to release beta-endorphins that improve mood (Fay, 2019, p. 16). Negative thoughts and emotions lead to irregular patterns and low heart coherence, which Increases stress and reduces ability to problem solve or process information (Fay, 2019, p.17).
The brain within your skull has an energy field that fluctuates based on your thought, emotions, and state of consciousness (Fay, 2019, p.20). Other people and animals (such as horses) can synchronize to your brain waves as with your heart waves. If a person anxious but the horse is calm and relaxed, the human can synchronize their heart and brain waves (or the horse may become dysregulated as well) (Fay, 2019, p.20). Brain waves are produced by neurons, which are brain cells and carry electrical impulses; they make up the brain and interconnect and communicate with each other (Fay, 2019, p 21). Neurons are stimulated when sensory information is received by the brain, creating electric impulses (called action potentials) that cause neurons to release chemical neurotransmitters (Fay, 2019, p.21-22). Any though, action, or feeling will also cause neurons to fire and release electromagnetic energy (Fay, 2019, p.22). Myelination is the process by which the connection between neurons is strengthened and produces neural pathways that allow for action or reaction without much (or any) though (Fay, 2019, p.22). An adult human’s brain has around 86 billion neurons, and a single neuron firing will connect with 1000 other neurons (Fay, 2019, p.23).
There are five main categories of brain waves based on frequencies (Hz) that correspond to level of consciousness (Fay, 2019, p. 23). The brain usually produces a combination of brain waves at any time, and these constantly change based on actions and thoughts (Fay, 2019, p. 24). Fay states that: “positive thoughts and emotions coupled with a slow Alpha brain wave pattern puts you in an optimum state to send and receive data from the energy field” (2019, p. 30).
Electromagnetic fields are relevant to EAI and the therapeutic use of horses because unlike humans, they are incredibly perceptive and responsive to electromagnetic fields and rely on them to communicate (Fay, 2019, p.13; 45). Being in the presence of a calm horse can cause a distressed human to synchronize to their energy field (Fay, 2019, p.13), as in the case of crisis interventions or de-escalation. Practicing controlling thoughts and emotions changes the human’s energy field, which in turn will alter how they affect or respond to others around them. When heart waves synchronize, the connection between two beings is enhanced (Fay, 2019, p.13). When training horses, humans can focus on creating positive heart energy to send to the horse to calm him/her (Fay, 2019, p.18), a practice that can also be transferred to managing conflict in human relationships. Awareness of the electromagnetic field in EAI will improve the client’s ability to communicate with the horse (and navigate other aspects of life) by honing their senses, listening to messages in response to incoming sensory stimuli, and “gain control over [their] energy signature (i.e. thoughts and emotions) (Fay, 2019, p.13).